Prayer is the second Pillar of Islam.

In this article an analysis will be made of the Salat (the formal Islamic prayer) in the light of all the previous articles. However, this will only be a shortened version of a much more detailed treatment that can be found in Book 5 of "The Alternative Way".

Islamic Salat is not just prayer in the conventional sense of the word. It affects the whole man in all his aspects. The main features of Islamic Salat can be summarized as follows:-

(1) It is spiritual, mental and physical discipline. It has to be performed with an awareness of the presence of Allah. It should not, therefore, be mistaken for a ritual. But it does have a ritualistic aspect as well as mental one in that certain words must be repeated with concentration and understanding. It has effects on the sub-conscious mind and through it on the unconscious mind. A human being is an organism, part of the Universe, consisting of the materials, energy, forces, law and processes of the Universe and in interaction with the Universe at various levels. He will, therefore, affect it by what he does and be affected by it. As a spiritual being he is also in contact with the fundamental Absolute Reality beyond the Universe.

(2) It concerns the concentration and development of consciousness, conscience and will. We have seen from a previous article that Allah breathed his spirit into man and that this produced in him consciousness, conscience and will. It is these, which have atrophied in man and need to be regenerated. Three different techniques are usually employed to do this. The concentration and expansion of consciousness is called meditation; ordinary prayer is devotion, a concentration and intensification of conscience or feelings and motives. The concentration and development of will or self-control is done through deliberate actions. This is achieved by attending to the ablutions and the 5 daily prayers and in the discipline and posture changes involved. The Salat combines all three methods of development. But whereas other systems allow aids to meditation and prayer in the form of outer or inner images, Islam forbids this entirely. This is because all images have limitations and restrict or distort development. It leads to all kinds of fantasies.

Other systems tend to practice only one of these but this makes for unbalanced development. The result is that though awareness and knowledge may increase due to meditation, the individual lacks the motivation and will to use it. But he who prays with devotion may certainly increase his good motives (even if it is only by constant self-suggestion), he will still lack the awareness and the will to be effective. He who develops a strong will like some of the Fakirs in India could perhaps achieve anything he wants, but his knowledge and motives remain primitive. This one sided development not only causes distortion, but also sets limits because the development of each depends to an extent on the development of the others.

(3) Mentally, it is at once a physical, emotional and an intellectual exercise. It engages thoughts, motives and actions. The posture changes keep the circulation going, thereby supplying nutrition, oxygen and hormones to the various organs, keep the body supple and affect the respiratory and digestive systems. They also change the pressure on various blood vessels, nerve centres and endocrine glands, the effect of this has not been explored in depth. A human being is a unity such that all parts interact. The nervous, the endocrine and the muscular systems, though they are inter-dependent, correspond to the faculties for thought, feeling and action and these three are also inter-dependent. It follows that they will affect each other. Thus if a person feels happy or sad this will reflect in his posture and also in his thoughts. Vice versa if postures are changed then this will affect the feelings and thoughts. If then during prayer appropriate thoughts, feelings and actions are cultivated they will reinforce each other powerfully and modify the person himself, provided of course, that the Salat is correctly performed. The prostration performed during Salat are the perfect expression of Islam, surrender to Allah. It also allows an increased blood flow into the brain because of gravity, which expands the blood vessels and brings more nutrition and oxygen. When a constant study of the Quran is made as a reminder and reinforcer of its values then the meaning of prayer is expanded. If a person's action become inconsistent with these values then an inner contradiction is set up, which produces discomfort. Either those actions will have to be abandoned and forgiveness sought or it is prayer that has to be abandoned

(4) It has a personal psychological, a social and an environmental function - it modifies the individual inwardly; it is also a social discipline in that there is person who has the duty to call the faithful to prayer at certain definite periods of the say, all worshippers face the same direction in prayer, in the mosques form straight rows behind a leader, and in any case perform the same acts in unison. This causes mutual reinforcement consciously and unconsciously. As there are millions of Muslims around the world a certain rhythm is also set up in the world. Because it is performed five times a day it structures the day and affects all parts of a persons life including his profession and his interactions with himself, with other people and the material world not only because of direct action but also by the kind of forces he absorbs, transforms and emits.

(6) It has three aspects: - (a) It has a fixed format for all which ensures uniformity and mutual reinforcement, and sets an example of what prayer should be about and that its purpose does not degenerate. (b) Within it allows a certain amount of flexibility in that the worshipper can choose his own verses from the Quran to recite. He may well go through the whole Quran over a period. (c) A third section allows free spontaneous prayer and supplication. There is, therefore, a graduation as in any school from obedience to authority to freedom.

(7) Ordinary prayer often consists of asking that some natural laws should be flouted to serve the worshippers whims or interests. It is a form of magic where the worshipper wants to manipulate God. It leads to contradictions such as, for instance, a holidaymaker praying for sunshine while a farmer prays for rain in the same place. It also leads to inner contradictions in that what a person wishes for is not the same thing as what he needs or is good for him. Islamic Salat differs from this in that it has spiritual and psychological value and it is by modifying this that other social and environmental results can also be obtained. Islamic Prayer is done in order to

(a) To make and renew contact with Allah and one's own spirit and expand awareness of the greater and more fundamental reality as opposed to the narrow, superficial and relatively trivial one of ordinary personal concerns and ambitions, and to see these latter in a greater context;

(b) To praise Allah, thereby affirming that all power is His, that He has all the good qualities and is the Ideal, that all bounties come from Him;

(c) To express gratitude based on the awareness of the gifts and privileges we have, the beauty around us, and opportunities we have been given, which cultivates contentment, joy and optimism, and also expresses obligation;

(d) To cultivate the stillness which allows a person to take stock of what he is doing, to make him self-aware of what the noise and bustle of life usually drowns out, to listen to what Allah inspires and the voice of conscience;

(e) To make, renew and reinforce his purposes and resolutions to serve Allah and improve and expand;

(f) to ask for forgiveness, which acknowledges failures, limitations and inner obstructions in comparison with the ideals and asks that these be removed;

(g) To supplicate for spiritual gifts from Allah, His guidance, light, spirit, mercy, benevolence and power.

(h) It recharges, so to speak, the spiritual batteries and removes tensions and anxieties, which can have profound effects on physical, psychological and social health.

(i) Prayer is done not only for oneself, but also for the Prophet and the whole Muslim community in order to establish the unity, the cable of Allah, the communal solidarity where mutual cooperation and reinforcement can take place.

(8) The efficacy of prayer may be regarded as having three levels.

(a) It can be regarded as affirming and reinforcing certain good qualities, thoughts and motives within ourselves at the expense of other bad ones. The more often we repeat these the stronger they become while the others are weakened. Praying for members of the family, friends and other people, for instance, is itself an affirmation of one's concern and compassion.

(b) Prayer may also be regarded as a form of self-suggestion the efficacy of which is proportional to the amount of faith and trust a person has.

(c) Allah is or has Universal Consciousness of which a human being is a small part. The religions confirm that communication between them can be set up and that Allah does respond.

At a more mundane level it can be pointed out that human beings like all other things consist of and interact with their surrounding through electromagnetic, electronic, chemical, cellular (micro-organisms such as bacteria etc.), gravitational and mechanical forces. The Universe and we as part of it, exist also in a Quantum Field that connects all things together. There are exchanges at all levels and we affect and are affected by this field both directly and indirectly by what we do and how we modify ourselves.

(1) Allah is most Great (four times). (2) I bear witness that there is none worthy of worship (or service) except Allah (twice). (3) I bear witness that Muhammad is the messenger of Allah (twice). (4) Come to prayer (twice). (5) Come to Success (twice). (6) Allah is most great (twice). (7) There is none worthy of worship but Allah (once).

The word "Great" should be understood in its widest meaning and refers to all the attributes of Allah. "Witnessing" implies not merely mental affirmation or even the faith which leads to appropriate action, but that one's life and being have been transformed and are an evidence of the truth. "Success" refers to Quran 51:56, that Allah created mankind and jinn to serve Him, and to grow:-

Also see 2:3-5, 3:104, 4:13, 7:8, 9:88, 23:102, 31:2-5, 58:22, 64:16 for description of success.

The Azan begins by reminding us who our Lord is, and therefore, who it is to whom we owe our duties. It reminds us that a messenger has been sent, that Allah can and has manifested Himself and does indeed require something of us, that there is an objective purpose for life and what this is. It exhorts us to abandon our fantasies, subjective thoughts, desires and activities and devote ourselves exclusively to Allah. It serves as a reminder that the spiritual life is most important and that the time has come to devote oneself to its welfare and development.

Without such reminders people are liable to remain caught in the narrow world of private concerns. The Azan obviously has a social significance. There is someone in the community whose function it is to rouse the community, to structure their day. There are indirect economic consequences because the Azan interrupts the working day and affects the motives of the people.

An examination of the Azan shows that there are 7 different phrases. Though there appear to be only 5 different ones, a change in meaning occurs because of position. All except the last phrase is repeated giving us 15 phrases (7+7+1). Although the sixth set of 2 appears to be the same as the first set of four (making altogether 4+2= 6), there is a subtle difference:- The first four are a simple statement or announcement in the four directions of the compass. The sixth pair refers to a human experience, which arises after the four pairs, numbers 2,3,4 and 5 (8 phrases). Whereas the first pair, number 2, serve as an argument leading to the next three pairs which establish the means, number 6 tells us the result. The pairs 3, 4 and 5 constitute an appeal. 2 tells us that nothing but Allah is worth worshipping, 3 asks us to accept the guidance of Muhammad who taught prayer, the 4 asks us to participate in the prayer, and 4 tells us what it does, namely it leads to success. Number 6 now becomes an assertion of Truth. The last phrase, 7, also seems a repeat of the number 2, but also has become an assertion of truth. We have a circle, a self-consistent system, and the whole of the Islamic teaching in a nutshell.

These 7 phrases can be regarded as forming 3 groups :- numbers 1 and 6, numbers 2,3 and 7, numbers 4 and 5. If we include the repetitions we have 15 phrases - 7 + 7 linked by the last (thus creating a set of 3 i.e. 7+7+1 ). Several other patterns can be discovered. The first phrase is repeated altogether 6 times (twice 3) which is the same as the number of different phrases between the set of phrases repeated at the beginning and end, and these in turn total 4+2+2+1=9= (3x3). The Last two phrases, including repetitions, make 3, which is half the number of the repetitions of the first two, which they echo. The three middle phrases are also uttered 6 times. These numbers are also thought to be significant as they refers to the structure of the Universe. Seven, for instance, is the number of colours in the spectrum of light, and light or electromagnetism is ultimately what all things are made of. There are also 7 heavens. Three refers to relationships in general (two relata and the relating factor) and stability (as in a tripod).

If we start with a Unity X and analyze it exhaustively for study purposes into 3 inter-dependent parts, A, B, C, a positive or active, a negative or passive and neutral or catalytic part (for instance, we have basic natural particles:- positrons, electrons and neutrinos), then these may be combined in 7 ways:- X, ABC, ACB, BAC, BCA, CAB, CBA. We can combine the six together and call it X2, add an X3 at the end, which is a reflection of X1 at the beginning. This also forms a triad. This scheme can be used to analyze anything we like.

Apart from the mystical significance of numbers and the meaning of the words, it is obvious that the structure of the Azan is not arbitrary. It has been carefully constructed and has an aesthetic appeal. This construction is continued throughout the Salat.

The Azan is followed by the preparation for prayer, the ablutions. In certain forms of mental illness where the patient is ridden with guilt, he has the compulsive need to wash. This indicates that washing has a deep seated psychological significance. But in Islam it is used deliberately rather than obsessively. The worshipper must be sober in the widest possible meaning of the term. Only the purified may enter the presence of Allah. Ablution has a significance similar to baptism in Christianity, though it is much more frequent. It's purpose is to wash away sin or dirt and to put on the garb of righteousness. It is an act of physical hygiene, but the physical act is a symbol for, and should be accompanied by mental purification - repentance, the abandonment of evil intentions, thoughts and actions, and cleansing of the spirit or consciousness from all worldly attachments. The individual is preparing to come into the presence of his Lord. It has the following aspects:-

(a) To remove the dirt coming from the environment.

(b) To remove the various excretions and superfluity coming from the body itself. e.g. sweat.

(c) To purify the emotions, replacing negative emotions such as greed, hate, fear etc with positive ones. This has a function in psychological hygiene.

(d) To concentrate the mind on a single but all-comprehensive focus, namely Allah, but to make no images which restrict and limit.

(e) To aid in the formation and reinforcement of the resolution to use all parts of the individual in the service of Allah.

(f) To create the proper mental state in which prayer can be effective.

(g) To produce self-confrontation with ones ultimate purpose.

Ablutions must be performed either with clean water or, in its absence, with clean sand. There are three forms of ablution:-

(a) Ghusl or Bathing. This is obligatory after coitus, menses, childbirth, before the Friday prayer ( i.e. once a week), on the two yearly festivals of Id, before entering the Kaaba, after touching the dead, and after blood flow. Bathing is done in flowing water. Bathing in tubs, in ones own dirty water, is abhorrent to Muslims. However, the use of soap, which removes the dirt, makes it more acceptable.

(b) Istinja consists of washing hands and the parts concerned following a visit to the toilet. It is said that this practice is responsible for the low incidence of venereal diseases among Muslims who have strayed but who still continue this practice.

(c) Wuzu. This is the usual form of ablution before prayer and is obligatory after vomiting, fits, swooning, sleep, laughter during prayer, embracing, touching worms, gravel or blood, passing wind, emission of semen, going to the toilet, using foul language. Wuzu is required also before the Quran may be opened. This is because understanding depends on the state of mind. There is a ritual involved in Wuzu, because a ritual is not merely an action but also a state of feeling and thought.

Wuzu may be preceded by cleansing the mouth with a toothbrush or miswak to remove bad odours. It begins by saying meditatively and reverently:

The purpose is to remove distracting thoughts, evil feelings and fidgety action i.e. the devils; to conserve and direct human effort and energy into useful self-constructive channels.

There are several stages in the Wuzu each beginning with certain appropriate words which act as reminders of various teachings, and resolutions. The wording itself is not compulsory but merely aids the resolution.

(1) First the hands are washed three times, saying:

A resolution is then made to remove all impurities. All the other stages have a similar format. These are as follows: (2) The mouth is rinsed out while gargling, three times. (3) The nostrils are compressed and water is blown out three times. (4) The face is washed three times, from the top down to the chin, from ear to ear and not forgetting the root of the hair. Water is allowed to flow through the beard. The eyes must be washed. (5) Next the arms are washed, the right first, up to the elbows three times allowing the water to flow off the elbows. (6) The head is then washed, rubbing it with both hands from front to back, three times. A handful of water is taken and ears washed internally and externally. Again some water is taken and the neck is washed with both hands. (7) The legs, the right first, are washed up to the knees thrice. The fingers must pass between the toes to clean them. When all this done the head is lifted up to heaven, saying:-

The Wuzu, too has 7 different parts, and most have to be performed 3 times.

It is clear, therefore, that Hygiene is built into the system and that it is not merely physical hygiene which prevents physical diseases, but that it is also understood as an emotional and intellectual purification which will have disease preventing properties in the moral and mental sphere. The reutilization and formalization of this act of hygiene ensures that the cleansing is thorough, regular, not lightly undertaken and does not lead to gradual erosion of the practice.

Islamic prayer (Salat) is divided into parts called Rakas, each of which has further parts. Prayers are performed five times a day and each has a certain minimum number of obligatory Rakas but more can be voluntarily added. Prayer once a day at least is better than none at all, but less may well be useless. The Friday congregational prayer is also obligatory. A seventh time of prayer in the middle of the night can be voluntarily done. The obligatory times are:-

(1)Fajr - After dawn but before sunrise - 2 rakas. (2) Zuhr - After noon - 4 rakas. (3) Asr - Late afternoon before sun-set - 4 Rakas. (4) Maghrib - evening after sunset but before twilight - 3 rakas. (5) Isha - After dark - 4 rakas

Salat has the following format:-

The worshipper stands on a special carpet reserved for prayer facing the Qiblah, the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca. This provides an appropriate association of ideas. The Muslim obtains a Centre of Gravity, as it were, a direction, a purpose and significance. The Kaaba represents the House of God on earth and, therefore, also the inner true Self as well as centre for the community. Prostration towards the Kaaba becomes Idolatry if it is not attended by inner prayer towards Allah. It is not that Allah is regarded as being located there, but that it forces a centre of orientation, and of social and psychological integration. As the Quran says:-

The worshipper fixes his gaze on the spot on the carpet where his head will touch during the coming prostration. Since prostration is an act of humility and submission, it represents the very definition of Islam. Humility is the absolute pre-requisite to learning and development, since it acknowledges ones imperfection.

Prayer must be conducted with an awareness that one is in the presence of Allah, with reverence, dignity, sincerity, concentration and unhurriedly. Prayer must begin with making an inner resolution to pray. Without such a resolution the mind is already wandering. He says to himself:-

The worshipper now raises his open hands to his ears, thumbs touching the ear-lobes and says:- "Allah is most Great." He tries to feel he is in the presence of God, and that God is supreme in his life. The gesture signifies that he is relinquishing the world, his hands are empty. He would on death be returning to God empty handed. Prayer is an inner journey to God. It is a rehearsal for death in that the worshipper ought to die to the world, in accordance with the verse:-

The arms are then folded over the stomach in reverence, right hand over the left, head lowered and eyes closed to keep out the worldly distractions. In some sects the hands hang freely to the sides. The following words are then uttered silently or in a whisper:-

This is an invocation whereby the mood of the prayer is set. Then

Three stages should be noted here. In the first, the worshipper identifies and concentrates his attention on the One. In the second he determines his goal, i.e to reach the Creator beyond His creations, the noumena behind phenomena. In the third he separates himself from the temptations of the worldly life, or even the world of phenomena, the world which deceives, imprisons, deprives and drains in order to rest in Allah, the infinite source of all Bounties and Mercy. He frees himself from idolatry. The words are the same as those that ought to begin every action. They not only dedicate the action to Allah, but also define its nature and describe who it is to whom the action is dedicated. In Christianity God is defined as Love. Here God is described by three concepts, namely Allah, Rahman and Rahim. These can be thought of as forming three stages. The word, Allah refers to something transcendental, beyond the world of Phenomena, but the cause of it. The word, Rahman refers to Beneficence, the Sustainer of all things. Rahim is even more specific, and can only apply after things have been created. It refers to recompense, reward for work, and the possibility of gaining a result from effort. It also refers to Compassion and Mercy, to forgiveness or escape from the consequences of error, the ability to counteract or correct mistakes, the existence of a certain amount of tolerance and flexibility in the Universe, the absence of the kind of mechanical determinism which classical physics tried to make us believe in. The formula quoted above has a fourth concept forming a fourth stage, namely, Protection. This recognizes the fact that we may be subject to error, rationalization, fantasy, self-deception, prejudice, temptation and distraction, all of which are included under the notion of Satan. We can obtain and we seek protection from such sources of illusion. These terms, therefore, tell us something about the structure of Reality and ourselves that are relevant to the process of living.

The Raka begins with the recitation of the first chapter of the Quran, the Fatihah. It is equivalent to the Lord's prayer in Christianity and is a summary of the entire Quran. It is also called The Seven Oft-repeated Verses (15:87). The number 7 represents the 7 stages or levels of creation. The understanding of these verses is proportional to the degree of study of the Quran. The words are:-

An analysis of these verses reveals much. There are three parts, a triad.

The first three verses form an upper triad telling us something about Allah and the Universe. The last three, the lower triad, tell us something about man. The fourth verse connects the two triads, man to Allah.

The upper triad describes and establishes what it is to which we subordinate ourselves. It is the Lord of all the Worlds where World may be understood in many ways. It could refer physically to the whole Universe. Or to the different worlds of humanity, mineral, plants, animals, humanity, Jinn, angels, archangels. It could refer to the different worlds described according to function e.g. the world of ideas, commerce, nature and so on. He is also Beneficent and Merciful. That is all power, nutrition and the requirements for life, welfare and development come from Him, and there is a degree of flexibility rather than inevitable consequences due to a stern heartless law.

The word translated here as Lord is "Rab". This word has many connotations including Creator, Guider, Cherisher, and Cultivator. The implication is that the Universe is growing or evolving under guidance. There is a direction of development and a goal towards which things are moving, and those which conform to the plan will have a good outcome while those who flout or obstruct it will have a bad outcome. The Day of Judgment therefore, refers to the Day of Destiny when things reach the goal.

The word "praise" also needs to be understood more deeply:-

(a) It is a statement telling us that Allah is the cause of all things.

(b) 'to give credit to'. To see and acknowledge that the cause of all things is Allah.

(c) 'to approve' i.e. to see and acknowledge that it is good.

(d) 'to be grateful for'. To realise the benefits one receives from this and behave accordingly.

(e) To give all praise is to see and acknowledge that nothing else deserves the credit. Everything else is dependent and driven by the law of cause and effect.

(f) Ultimately, to praise is to take as an ideal, to surrender. To recognize that one is nothing and the object of praise is everything.

Not only is it so, and we see that it is so, but we acknowledge that it is so in our thoughts, feelings and actions, we acknowledge that it is good, and we intend to behave accordingly.

The fourth verse links the higher triad with the lower. We try deliberately to reject all subordination, mental, emotional or physical, to anything else, be it objects, persons, ideas or institutions.

The lower triad acknowledges and accepts, embraces, as well as asks for help in pursuing a way of life which accords with a Universal Plan or process. Three alternatives are open to man.

(a) Either to benefit through correct behaviour based on knowledge,

(b) Or to be harmed and destroyed by following prejudice, superstition, conditioning, ones own lusts, greed etc. i.e. following false goals and self-subjection to false deities,

(c) Or to go astray and miss the point, commit errors and yield to temptations owing to accident, weakness or ignorance and unconsciousness. In this case, however, though we suffer, we may still find our way back.

These verses, therefore, establish the three categories by which things can be judged.

It should be realized that the constant uttering of these words meaningfully and with sincere intention should have three effects:-

(1) It has psychological effects. It is sufficient to change ones attitude and orientation. It changes ones mental set, motivation and activities, and these in turn lead to the kind of behaviour that will ensure a psychological reconstruction. It creates a certain objectivity in attitude towards the universe and existence and a certain self-image because all things are governed by Allah; there is gratitude because Allah is beneficent; it removes tension and debilitating guilt feelings because Allah is merciful; it removes dependence and idolatry because it is Allah alone we worship and supplicate; it creates purpose, striving and effort in the right direction because that is what we are asking for.

(2) It has social effects. Allah is Lord of all equally and the transformed behaviour caused by the above affect all social interactions.

(3) It creates environmental effects. It is Allah who is the Lord of the World as well as of human beings who must, therefore, deal with the world and all things in it with a certain respect on behalf of Allah.

This is now followed by a recitation of a passage from the Quran, which the worshipper himself selects. The selection may be dedicated to the particular problem that the worshipper might have, allowing a better insight into the meaning of the selection. A different selection may be made each time and the whole of the Quran can then be gone through, thereby deepening the insight into it. A popular selection is Quran chapter 112:-

The implication is that the worshipper has turned to what is indivisible, unique and self-existing. He cannot make any images of Him. But He is the final goal of all things.

The worshipper now places his hands on his knees and bows before God, saying:- "Allah is most Great". His body must form a right angle. In this position he says either three or seven times: - "All glory is Thine, our Lord Almighty."

He then rises to the erect position, saying, "Allah listens to him who praises Him. Our Lord praise is Thine alone."

By bowing before Allah he has acknowledged that Allah is the source of all power and good things and that he values them, but then he rises as a symbol that Allah has raised him by bestowing on Him that which he values.

Then saying, "Allah is most Great", the worshipper kneels down on the ground and then prostrates himself. The forehead rests on the carpet while the hands are placed on the ground on either side of the shoulders. The knees and the toes are also on the carpet. In this position he has seven points of his body in contact with the floor, forming a regular figure. Three points on either side (foot, knee and hand), positive for the right and negative for the left, the head being the seventh point in the middle, the neutral. We again have a triad. He is a symbol for the Universe, which is also in a state of prostration before Allah. When one thing becomes a model for another a kind of resonance or empathy is established between them. Man becomes receptive to universal forces. The state of prostration is a perfect representation in the body of the mental state of Surrender.

During the prostration he says three or seven times:- "All glory be to my Lord Most Exalted."

He now takes the sitting posture saying, "Allah is most great", and once again goes into the prostration saying, "O Allah forgive me and have mercy on me". He does so while remembering his sins and failings. The second prostration repeats the words of the first, but the meaning has changed. In the first case the words recognised the supremacy of Allah, but in the second they recognize the inadequacy of the worshipper. In the first case Allah has the ideal qualities which we wish to develop and in the second case we see how we have comparatively failed.

This completes one Raka. Rakas are usually performed in pairs.

The second Raka is performed in the same way. The worshipper rises to the upright position saying, "Allah is most great", and repeats the procedure of the first Raka. The formula "Allah is most great" connects the different postures.

Having completed the second Raka the worshipper sits up, usually with his legs under him saying, "Allah is most great." In the sitting position the wording of the prayer shows that the worshipper associates himself with the Prophet, the righteous and other muslims to form a unified group clinging to the cable of Allah according to the Quran 3:103.

The worshipper recites:- "All service by word, deed and sacrifice are due to Allah. Peace be on thee, O Prophet, and the mercy of Allah and His blessings be on thee. Peace be on all of us and on the righteous servants of Allah. I bear witness that none is deserving of worship except Allah. I bear witness that Muhammad is His servant and messenger."

This is followed by the Salavat consisting of the words: -

The words in brackets are given to indicate that there is some variation between sects. Some Muslims understand this part of the prayer to refer to the physical descendants of the Prophet through his daughter Fatima. Others believe it refers to all the followers of the Prophet. The present author of this article believes that the spiritual descendants are meant whether or not they are physical descendants. These consist of the saints, the righteous and the martyrs as in Quran 4:69.

This prayer is asking for some positive gifts such as those derive from the Attributes of Allah and His Bounty. It also firmly joins the worshipper and the Muslims with Abraham and his spiritual descendants. In this connection it is should be pointed out that Abraham was not a Jew or Christian or a member of any sect or religion but he was an upright man (Quran 3:67, 95). Islam and Muslims should not, therefore, form a sect, though the righteous and those who strive to be so are certainly distinct from those who make no such efforts but go astray from the Straight Path.

Then comes the Dua consisting of the words:- "O Allah, I have been extremely unjust to my soul and none grants forgiveness of sins but Thou. Therefore, forgive me Thou, with the forgiveness which comes from Thee and have mercy on me. Verily Thou art the Forgiver and the Merciful."

Whereas in the case above the addition of something positive was asked for, here the removal of something negative is asked for. The forgiveness asked for is a real forgiveness. That is one that removes a spiritual defect and heals a wound or deficiency. The question is:- why should the addition be asked for before the removal? The reason seems to be that we recognize a deficiency best when we see something positive. We are also required to pray unselfishly, for the community to which we belong and on which we depend before ourselves.

Prayer in the sitting posture is quite different from others. Whereas the other parts are concerned exclusively with submission to Allah, here we have recognition of His creatures. It is also divisible into three kinds and stages:- From (a) the recognition of Allah (b) to the recognition of the Prophet and the saints. (c) to the recognition of other people (c) and finally to the recognition of oneself. We proceed from the Ultimate Whole, through smaller circles to the part which is a centre but seen as having a function with respect to each higher circle.

Note that there are four postures, standing, bowing, prostration and sitting. He stands as a man, his head reaching towards heaven, he bows as if weighed down by sin and burdens, or like the higher animals, he prostrates like the lower, creeping animals or as if returning to the dust whence he came, and he sits as if a plant or stone. The two prostrations may be thought of as follows:- You are first part of the earth, dead, you then rise out of it as a living being, you then die and are returned to the earth, and finally you are resurrected again. The sitting posture may also be regarded as equivalent to the permission given to a visitor to sit down. Allah has acknowledged the visitor and invited him. The visitor must, however bring gifts for his host. He brings himself and his praise.

Note that each Raka has three postures. When repeated in the second Raka we have two triads, equal to six changes in posture. This is followed by the fourth posture, sitting, making a total of seven. The seven points of the prostration are, therefore, repeated in a different way.

The worshipper then either goes into the next pair of Rakas saying "Allah is most great" or else he completes his devotions as follows:- He faces right saying :- "Peace be upon you all and the Mercy of Allah be on you." And facing left he repeats the same words. They refer to the other members of the congregation and to absent Muslims and, indeed, all mankind. Thus he acknowledges a social duty apart from a spiritual one.

This is followed by personal and spontaneous prayers. He does so while still sitting and cupping his hands before him as if to receive something. Whereas the main prayer asks only for spiritual gifts this part may ask for any personal favour be it material, social or psychological.

Prayer has three levels.

(a) The verbal and ritualistic, which though least effective is not entirely useless. We are normally aware of very little we do and of the various forces in nature and their effects on us or of the effects of our own actions. Some of these may trigger, by association, certain ideas and experiences that we have had. Our previous studies may have created certain ideas, attitudes and motives. If prayer has no worldly purpose, the motive behind it and these associations are reinforced by repeated action, and this has some transforming effect. If it has a worldly motive such as to impress others or display conformity then these will be their rewards and nothing else.

(b) The level of concentration of thought, feeling and action. The effect of this is the same as in any other exercise. It strengthens the exercised faculties and the ability to concentrate. Action as we know has a direct effect on the environment as when we change or make something and affect other people. This, in its turn, affects still other things and people. And so on. But as we work through our bodies, effects depend on what kind of control a person has over his body and mind in the first place. Feeling and thinking constitute two other lines of influence not only because they affect actions but also because the three faculties affect each other and each has a direct affect on the environment. We absorb, transform and excrete or radiate all kinds of forces which affect other things.

(c) The level of absorption. It is said that one of the companions of the Prophet used to get so absorbed that it was possible to perform an amputation on his leg without him being aware of it. The Prophet was able to visualize his presence in another world.

Throughout prayer the mind must be held from wandering, and feelings appropriate to the words must be cultivated. Negative emotions such as anger must be replaced with feelings of love, gratitude, reverence etc. Bodily fidgeting must be controlled and postures must be undertaken with precision. This involves intellectual, emotional and physical discipline. Congregational prayer is considered to be most effective because individuals reinforce each other. The worshippers must then form straight lines, without gaps and all posture changes must be made in unison. This is facilitated by having a leader. There is no priesthood in Islam, but the person recognised or accepted as the most pious in the congregation takes the lead.

Prayer is designed to replace the old ways of thinking, feeling and acting. Prayer ought to be reinforced by the study of the scriptures and by action, while diminishing and neutralizing conditions which evoke the old ways of thinking, feeling and acting. The horizontal replacement of one set of intellectual, emotional or motor habits by another may have some value but is less important than the vertical replacement of less comprehensive ways of functioning by more comprehensive and integrated ways.

People pray in order to receive an answer. Prayer is answered on condition that the prayer is for Allah's sake. This implies that:-

(a) The worshipper is righteous or tries to be righteous. Allah does not guide the miscreant. The desires he expresses do not come from the lower mind or its attachments, rationalisations and fantasies, from greed and lust.

(b) The worshipper asks for something that has objective value, that is, it is good and beneficial in the sight of Allah. It accords with the teachings.

(c) That it is consistent with the overall plan of Allah.

(d) The prayer is offered in faith where faith is a product of the spirit not the mind.

Prayer is, therefore, prayer only when it involves surrender.

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