The main objections to the Darwinian Evolution Theory are as follows:-

(1) The theory is too dead and mechanical whereas living things are alive and motivated. They are not passive, but have urges and drives. Their behaviour is governed, at least partly, by their internal organisation. Connected with these drives is cognitive ability, selectivity and the capacity to act to various degrees.

(2) Evolution is not merely adaptation to changing circumstances at the same level, but there is an accumulation (there is an addition of characteristics) and there is a direction to this process. There is increasing complexity. Reproduction is expansion of a species. The individual grows from a single fertilized cell into an adult consisting of millions of cells, but these are organized. Memories accumulate - they are not simply replaced. They become more organized. Organization depends on three factors:- (a) the containing forces which separate (b) the inner forces from (c) the external forces. It appears to be a compromise between two opposite process, of separation and unification, analysis and synthesis. It is a transitional state between two states of uniformity.

(4) Organisms are not rigid invariables that can be described by precise concept required by logical arguments. The individual examples in a class are not identical. The same organism has a range of possible characteristics and there is a degree of uncertainty about their behaviour. They are "fuzzy" entities in that each is a bundle of probabilities such that several actual behaviour patterns are possible according to the environment with which they interact. This gives them adaptability. The degree of adaptability varies.

(5) Organism are not just simple objects but organized system. They are complex systems belonging to higher systems and containing systems as parts. These contain many feed back mechanisms and many kinds of balances between opposite, positive and negative, enabling and disabling forces and processes. The whole is more than the sum of the parts owing to the organization and has a controlling influence on the parts, and the parts tend to adjust to the whole. This may be because the whole consists of a structured electrical or quantum field. This capacity for adjustment can be defined as intelligence. Each system has a degree of tolerance within which it can vary without collapsing. Biologists tend to place their attention on the structure and function of the parts and their inter-relationships, but never or seldom on the affect of the whole on the parts and of the parts on the whole. Indeed, science appears not have any techniques for dealing with this aspect of things.

(6) The notion that evolution is like a tree in time which is continually branching does not give quite the correct picture. In this view the present is represented only by the ends of the branches and are separate from each other, the rest of the tree having disappeared into the past. In fact all organisms at any time interact directly or indirectly. Evolution is better represented by an organism that grows from the single cell through various stages into a multi-cellular adult. Each organism interacts with its environment consisting of all the other organisms. The Biosphere itself is part of the planet, which is part of the rest of the Cosmos. It is the whole that is evolving.

(7) Evolution is regarded as being caused by variations and Natural selection by the environment the characteristics that gives the organism the best advantages in its struggle to survive and reproduce against competition. However, co-operation and unification also provide advantages. There are several ways in which variation takes place, mutations being one of them. The word "mutation" refers to a small change. Biologists suppose that an accumulation of small changes this will get rid of the religious notion of creation, because these are regarded as caused by random factors and not by intelligent design. But it does not do so, because they still require causes. One could argue that a mutation is a creative act and causes for it are inherent in the whole of existence - it may be caused by radiation, chemicals, biological agents such as viruses, physical, psychological and social stresses. The germ cell (the sperm and ova) was regarded as being well protected from the forces that affect the rest of the organism. But the evidence is that nothing is wholly isolated and the germ cells are also affected by changes and stresses in the rest of the body. No mutation can take place that the structure of the organism or gene does not allow. A mutation is, therefore, a result of the forces in the environment, the nature of the entity, the system, gene or chromosome and the relationship between the two. A mutation is thought of by some biologists as a "mistake" in replication. But the fact is that nature ensures variation because this allows adaptation and evolution, thereby overcoming destruction. It is not a mistake, but is selected. In fact, we can regard it as an aspect of Natural Intelligence. The continuity of life is a balance between change and constancy.

Evolution, we see, is the result of the operation of these Protectors. Their behaviour is not independent of their environment and they cannot arise or operate except within a system. These systems must be pre-supposed.

(8) Evolution depends on the striving for, arising and accumulation of advantages.

(b) The characteristics of the organism consist of a combination in different proportions of three factors:- (i) inherent genetic factors (ii) factors acquired from the environment through experiences recorded in memory. (iii) the results of volitional efforts, exercises and striving. For instance, exercises strengthen the muscles or talents and these bestow advantages that are beyond those bestowed by the genes unaided or by the environment when the organism is passive. But it is the genetic factor that creates the conditions that allow selective perception and recording of experiences and also the volitional capability. The efforts depend on the instincts, motives, drives and values and the way they are channeled. At the lowest level the genetic factor is of greatest importance. At a higher level the effects of the environment become increasingly more important. At a still higher level it is the deliberate conscious efforts that are increasingly more important. The Progress of science, technology, organization, education, the culture and civilization depends on this conscious efforts, and the few who have this ability and exercise it.

(c) Advantages may be of three types or at three levels:- Those that enable (i) physical survival. (ii) reproduction (iii) expansion e.g. of abilities, adaptability etc. These three are not the same, but affect each other.

(d) The characteristics and the environment to which it relates are of three kinds - (i) Physical,(ii) Social and (iii) Psychological. The organism does not only have to adapt to its physical environment but also to the community of which it is part. Some of the characteristics that organisms develop are wholly social in nature and concern not outer physical changes but changes in behaviour (which are due to inner changes) and have only a social function. But they enhance physical survival indirectly through the community or herd. At a third level, it is psychological characteristics such as the capacity for consciousness, self-control, empathy, language, forming abstract ideas and a world of symbols and so on that become important.

(9) What does evolution mean? What does it consist of? What is it that is evolving? These questions are seldom asked or answered. It is certainly not an individual fish that became a land animal, or a particular dinosaur that became a bird, or a certain ape that became a man. We have to distinguish between three levels of existence and experience:- (a) Level 1 - the material. This refers to what we can perceive through our senses at particular times in space. (b) Level 2 - the mental. This requires us to create concepts abstracted from our memories. Evolution refers to something about which we have formed concepts and a continuity of changes in time. It is not itself a material process but takes place through it but not wholly. (c) Level 3 - the spiritual. This refers to order and the powers and function of things in the scheme of all things. It is an increase in complexity, awareness, integration, control, sense of responsibility and progress towards harmony and Unity. Evolution ultimately refers to a spiritual process.

A great many characteristics exist that cannot be explained by their survival value, but by their sexual appeal. e.g. the elaborate feathers of the peacock. The selection, it is said, is done by the female and evolution, therefore, depends on her preferences. But this is a one-sided biased view, because the male also has to attract the female by his behaviour. The development of the human brain can also be explained by the preference by women for the more intelligent and able male. This preference also causes men to compete and cultivate their talents and produce much work such as poetry, art and philosophy, which had no survival value. Women would also have to compete and cultivate methods of attracting and keeping their mate. This would have survival value in a competitive environment because the female would be choosing a mate more able to protect her and her children. The same would be the case if parents choose more able spouses for their daughters. The values current in a society will affect the choice, and these may well derive from what is perceived as good or useful or superior. Non-objective values will be disadvantages. However, this is impossible unless there is a perception of relative values and this means that there must be a scale of excellence and an in-built evolutionary striving. The fact that young animals play to exercise and extend their abilities and that in many species only a dominant male is allowed to reproduce shows that some aspects of behaviour have neither survival nor reproductive value. Indeed, the struggle for existence is brought about by the fact that all species tend to expand.

Biologists speak of "Junk DNA" because most genes appear to have no function. But this idea could be a mistake. Most mutations form recessive genes and manifest themselves only when two people having the same gene have off-springs. Unless it is on the X-chromosome then it will show up because there is no corresponding gene on the Y chromosome. (all the other 22 chromosomes, known as autosomes are paired and the 23rd chromosome is paired only in females - they have 2. But males have one X and one Y. If the mutation is on the Y it will show up only in males. Genes on the X chromosome appear to have much greater connection with intelligence as well as the sex drive than other genes. But it is also the case that many genes do not become active until suitable conditions exist and are activated by proteins or other genes. The existence of a great number of inactive genes, therefore, implies that human beings have a vast potentialities both for adaptation to a variety of environments but also a great many hidden talents and powers.

There have been qualitative and "phase" changes in the history of evolution besides changes in the quantity of abilities. This means that the laws or rules regulating behaviour and development have also changed. Things that apply to minerals do not necessarily apply to plants and vice versa; nor do things applying to plants, animals and man apply necessarily to the others. Each stage transcends the one before. Minerals can form crystals but they are mostly (but not wholly) inert and passive, requiring external forces to cause motion and change. If we represent the world or environment by a circle A, then we can represent a material object by a circle B within A. There is interaction between A and B. Plants have a certain self-regulatory ability and can grow and repair themselves. Their structure and behaviour is wholly governed by their genes. They can be represented by two concentric circles C within B (or three concentric circles if we understand an entity not to be independent of the environment with which it is inter-dependent). B is the environment for C and there is interaction between them. Animals in addition can move and actively seek and recognize food. Their brain, which records experiences, governs their behaviour, but it is mostly instinctive. They can be represented by a three concentric circles, D within C within B (or four concentric circles). Human behaviour, though also affected by their genes, has become increasingly more dependent on factors acquired from experiences in their physical, social and cultural environment. In addition they have the capacity to form images think and manipulate the data of experience within their minds as well as their own limbs. All this has allowed them to create Culture and Civilization. The Laws of the jungle do not necessarily apply to man and man should transcend them. This is because greater intelligence and perception has also enhanced feelings such as fellow feeling, compassion, empathy, the range of motives, and motor abilities including control over ones own muscles, feelings and thoughts. This requires still another center of control. They can be represented by four concentric circles, E within D within C within B. Further evolution can be represented by three possible further circles, F, G and H which could represent stages described as Self-consciousness, Objective Consciousness and Cosmic Consciousness. H will in a certain respect be the same as A.

Genes work in threes to produce the proteins required for the operation of the body and to activate other genes. The same gene can act within different triads. A gene can, therefore, be responsible for many characteristics. And a particular characteristic can be the result of the co-operation of many genes. Characteristics regarded as harmful may be associated with characteristics regarded as useful. But the harmfulness or usefulness of the characteristic may depend on the environment in which it operates and on the value judgments. It is perfectly possible that human intervention which tries to get rid of what is considered to be a bad characteristic will cause the elimination of what is considered to be a good characteristic now or could be so considered in future or was considered so in the past. Conversely, the deliberate cultivation of what is considered to be a good characteristic may result in the proliferation of a bad or harmful characteristic.

The increase in self-awareness and conscious self-control appears to be a much better alternative and is, probably the future of evolution.

(Continued in next article.)

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