Note: 'gemeines Deutsch' was developing towards a regional standard language in southern/central Germany.

That Martin Luther (1483-1546) made a significant contribution to the development of a standard written German is not disputed. However, the extent of his influence is debated in the books and so difficult to put into perspective. Modern books contradict the importance of Luther claimed in earlier ones, therefore it will help to look at the background and consequences of Luther's work.

After examining the factors affecting the written language during Luther's period, we should be able to see the reasons for his choice of language. Luther had to use the available medium but he also had a private aim and therefore adapted the language to suit this. We can examine what kind of writing Luther produced and its immediate effects, but we also need a longer term view to discover if this is still reflected in modern German. A brief comparison with other periods and other influential figures may put his achievements into a clearer perspective.

The Early New High German (ENHG) period of 1350-1650 was characterised by the language of the towns and cities (Städterdeutsch) because it was here that factors of change were most at work. Written German was a group of dialects but they were being shaped in ways which caused them to become more alike. One of the factors helping the convergence of dialects was the need for communication between the chanceries of the principalities, and between these and the Imperial Chancery, which until 1438 was situated in Prague (Stedje p19). Lack of a single political centre in Germany retarded standardisation, although the influence of the Imperial Chancery helped in this respect.

The Benrather line (a line showing a dialect boundary across northern Germany) marks the boundary between Low-German dialects and those of High-German and is the result of the second great consonant shift begun around 500 AD. South of this line the East Middle region had a dialect based on the Prague and Saxon chancery languages. Further South in Bavaria and Austria a written standard was emerging based on the Vienna chancery, and gained more influence when the Imperial Chancery moved there in 1438. For this reason, this 'gemeines Deutsch' was chosen for the pre-Luther Bible translations undertaken after the invention of printing in 1445.

Printing was the second major factor in the standardisation of a written German language. Because careful choice of words could help to gain a larger market for the books, selection began to occur. There was great demand for cheaper printed Bibles and German translations began to join the established Latin ones. The, mostly southern, printers produced 14 pre-Luther Bibles in 'gemeines Deutsch' (4 more were produced in Low German) thereby giving prestige and the authority of the scriptures to this dialect.

This picture of one Middle German dialect and one High-German one is a gross simplification because four major dialects existed in the South and two in the central area. Within these localities the printers had their own preferences and needed to meet the needs of the local populations. It is with this background that Luther began to publish his religious works in Wittenberg.

Luther published the New Testament in 1522 and it was an immediate success. The first printing of 3000-5000 copies was a high figure at that time and a second edition was produced the same year. He had succeeded in making the work acceptable to many people in other parts of Germany too, although translations were made into Low German. It seems his aim of spreading the gospel wider than ever had, as a side effect, induced change into the written German language.

At first, the spelling and form of words in the early publications was left to his printer Hans Lufft but after a few years he took a close interest in choosing the details of the text for himself. He used a mixture of vowels from both 'gemeines Deutsch' and East Middle German. The High-German diphthongs: ei, au, eu, were used but he kept the East Middle German monothongs: ie, uo, üe. The plosives: b, d, g, were retained, contrary to High-German use where they became p, t, k. Past tense strong verbs retained different vowels for singular and plural forms (Waterman p129). Another and easily noticeable difference from 'gemeines Deutsch' was Luther's retention of the final unstressed 'e', in comparison with its apocope (dropping) in the South.

It was, however, neither the vocabulary, nor the orthography, that made Luther's work so popular, but rather his skill in producing a flowing style, closer to the speech of ordinary people. He took the trouble to choose the best language for a wider audience claiming to use the 'gemeine Sprache', but he based it more on the Saxon chancery language as is shown by the need for a 'foreign' word list supplied with a Luther edition in Basle (DTV Atlas p99). Generally, new grammatical constructions were not invented but he was more flexible in using all the forms then available, including modal verbs and more particles than was usual. Some new compound words were created to express his religious thoughts e.g. 'friedfertig, Herzenlust, Glaubenkampf'. Other words changed their meaning as a result of his adaptation e.g.'fromm' changed to mean 'glaubig' (DTV Atlas p99). In addition, Luther's desire to convey shades of meaning produced many phrases which have remained in the language to this day e.g. 'Wer eine Grube macht, der wird drein fallen', (Whoever digs a pit/grave will himself fall into it). Eure Perlen sollt ihr nicht vor die Säue werfen', (You should not throw your pearls before swine) (Waterman p133) (Own translations).

Luther's complete Bible appeared in 1434 but the text was not welcomed by all. The main criticisms came from Catholic churchmen who accused him of deliberate distortion of the Bible. Bavarian opposition was mainly because of different religious beliefs but in Switzerland political resistance to Germany also played a part. The Protestant North was more favourable to the content but the language barrier was stronger here.

Criticism was answered in Luther's open letter, the 'Sendbrief von Dolmetschen', where he defends his work and compares it to Mentel's 'wooden' first Bible translation into High-German. He adds that the Latin text should not be slavishly followed, but that German should be chosen as it is used: by mothers, children and the ordinary man at the market.

The Luther Bible was accepted best in East Middle Germany, establishing Wittenberg as the foremost printing centre; but western areas also received his work well. His religious teachings gave more authority to his written language style although translations into Low German continued into the 17^th century (Waterman p133). By this time High German had replaced Low German as the most prestigious written form with only the Hanseatic cities holding out until later.

Several other factors led to a greater use of Luther's language. He also translated Psalms, sermons and the Catechism, which were read and sung many times in Church services and religious instructions. Many of these would be learned by heart, reinforcing the new style of language. Luther continually revised his later editions of the Bible, improving his expression in order to communicate the meaning as accurately as possible. Besides developing his own skills, he worked with colleagues who were experts in other fields of knowledge.

Even before the end of the 16^th century the authority of Luther's German was increased by the appearance of a book on German grammar which gave Luther's language as a standard. This book of 1578 by Johann Claius, although in Latin, was an important work being reprinted up to 1720. There were other grammars advocating 'gemeines Deutsch' as the best dialect, and even the Swiss form had support, so East Middle German was still not without competition (Waterman p135).

So, we can see that within 100 years Luther had significantly altered the written German language, making his version the most widely accepted. This was due to the popularity of his work, which reached more people than previous German writings. By 1546 Tschirch estimates that at least 1 in 3 households had an edition of a Luther Bible (Polenz p253).

Luther's work involved a selection process, which contributed to a change in the language; but this was a by-product of his efforts to spread his religious beliefs far and wide. The invention of printing and a certain amount of dialect standardisation were the preconditions, which made his success possible. The distribution of his work was so rapid and widespread that even before the century ended grammarians were beginning a codification process based on Luther's works.

Of course there was not yet one unified High-German standard and the later grammarians modified and developed the language further. But no other period was so conductive to change in the German language and no other individuals, with the possible exceptions of the Grimm brothers, had a greater or more lasting influence on written German; one which can still be seen in the language today.

Bibliography

E. Arndt und G. Brandt, 1983, VEB, Leipzig, Luther und die deutsche Sprache.

W. König, 1978, DTV, Munich, DTV Atlas zur deutschen Sprache.

P. von Polenz, 1991, W. de Gruyter, Berlin, Deutsche Sprachgeschichte.

A. Stedje, 1989, Fink, Munich, Deutsche Sprache gestern und heute.

J. Waterman, 1966, Univ. of Washington, Seattle, A History of the German Language.